Truth Magazine

By Daniel H. King

Looking at Judaism from the perspective of a Christian, there is much both to love and to respect. As Paul, a Jews by birth and raising, and yet a Christian by conviction and lifestyle, said it: “I bear them record that they have a zeal for God” (Rom. 10:2); and again, “To (them) pertaineth the adoption, and the glory, and the covenants, and the giving of the law, and the service of God, and the promises; whose are the fathers, and of whom as concerning the flesh Christ came” (Rom. 9:4-5).

Of all the non-Christian religions of the world we ought to feel the most kindred in spirit to Jewish people. We share a common faith in the Hebrew Bible and its God. And, it is not in vain that historians speak of the Judaeo-Christian ethic which lies at the heart of Western civilization’s law codes and common standards of behavior. However, being so closely “related” to Judaism has led to animosity and rivalry on both sides of the Jewish-Christian equation. Early Christians first experienced persecution at the hands of the Jews before they felt the brunt of Roman Imperial opposition. Later, when Christianity became the most popular religion in the Roman Empire and Catholicism was developing into a political force, persecution of Jews by the church of that time turned the tables against Judaism. So, the relationship has not always been a friendly one.

As early Christians were at times misunderstood and charged falsely by Jews and Romans, so has it been for Jews at the hands of Christians. Anti-Judaism, well attested in the pagan world, and later Anti-Semitism which culminated in the holocaust under Hitler and Naziism, have brought us to an awareness of how tragic can be the result when misunderstandings and misrepresentations are allowed to fester into hatred. Differences do exist between the two religions, but no one’s case is made stronger through falsehood. It is with this in mind that we attempt to shed some light upon Judaism as believed and practiced among Jewish people today.

History and Background

One of the most prevalent misunderstandings about Judaism is the idea that reading the Old Testament is the key to knowing and understanding it. This is only partially true. If one is to know what Judaism is about, he must have some idea of what the centuries of Jewish tradition have produced since the completion of the Hebrew Bible. He must understand what the Mishna and Talmud are and how these literary works have shaped Jewish thought since the fall of the Second Temple. As well, he must grasp how modern modes of thought and lifestyles have altered Jewish thinking as it has that of many Christians. In short, he will find that Jews are almost as disparate in their ways of thinking about religion as are the various Protestant denominations and the Catholic church. It is hard to say, “Jews believe this or that.” Only some Jews probably believe any given thing that we might talk about. Still, there are some basic things that do pertain in most instances, and it is these which we will be talking about.

“Judaism” traces its beginnings to the time of Ezra the scribe and “the man of the great synagogue.” Ezra returned to Jerusalem in 458 B.C. to restore the Law of Moses as the guiding principle in the life of the nation. Because of his courage and tenacity and the success which followed his efforts, Ezra became a folk hero in certain circles in Israel. He was portrayed as a “scribe skilled in the Law of Moses” (Ezra 7:6). Following upon his model, close scribal study of the Law became the special province of select groups in Israel, among them the scribes of the Pharisees, which are prominent in the New Testament, and the (probably) Essene scribes at Qumran. These men came to be called “lawyers” (Matt. 22:35; Lk. 7:30; etc.) or “doctors of the Law” (Lk. 5:17; Acts 5:34). They rendered judgments for the community on important legal issues, although they frequently disagreed among themselves on their rulings. The Hebrew Bible was viewed by them as a final book, all-embracing, adequate for every contingency. No future, however distant and revolutionary, could possibly render it antiquated: “Leaf it (the Book) and leaf it again, for everything is in it” (Aboth 5:25). To them the Law, or Torah, included both the written Law and the Oral Law (accumulated traditions). Over time they came to view their judgments as case law having divine sanction, even harking back to Sinai itself: “Moses received the Law from Sinai and handed it down to Joshua, and Joshua to the elders, and the elders to the prophets, and the prophets handed it down to the men of the Great Assembly” (Aboth 1:1). As teachers of the Law, they expected to received special treatment: “Let the honor of they friend border on the honor of they teacher, and the honor of thy teacher on the fear of God” (Aboth 4:12). The common people revered them for their, sometimes legendary, knowledge of Scripture and tradition.

The result was that during the time of Jesus many had become conceited and self-assertive and the Lord was at odds with them on various occasions. He particularly disliked their reverence for human traditions (Mk. 7) and the hypocrisy of many of their lives (Matt. 23). In the providence of God, however, one of their young students, Saul of Tarsus, eventually became the most articulate and effective of the preachers of Jesus as the Messiah.

The Impact of the Destruction of the Temple

After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. Judaism found herself without a Holy City or Temple. Priesthood and sacrifice were at a virtual end. The High Priesthood as an institution was lost in Israel, and the mantel of leadership fell upon the Pharisees, or more correctly, their posterity. As a people she fell back more than ever upon the contemplation of the Torah. A center of study evolved at Jamnai in Palestine under Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai. Johanan concentrated his efforts on the present needs of the surviving remnant of Israel, devising a program for the reconstruction of the people and the faith in the aftermath of this disaster. The academy at Jamnia continued discussion and debate of issues relating to Jewish life and further expanded the oral tradition material.

At the end of the second century Rabbi Judah the Prince assembled and edited a compilation of Oral Law, known as Mishna or “study.” It gained immediate acceptance as the authoritative work in the field of interpreting and amplifying the contents of Scripture. Of the 523 chapters of the Mishna, only six are free from disagreement among the authorities cited. So it may be viewed as more of a discussion of issues than a creed for Jews. The traditional material had grown so voluminous that it was necessary that it be put into written form that it not be lost. By the time it was set down in writing, however, some of the decisions arrived at in the Mishna were no longer applicable to existing conditions. There arose, therefore, a growing body of “Gemara” (from an Aramaic word meaning “study”) or discussion of Mishna pronouncements. This has come to be called the Talmud. It grew through the entire period of the first eight centuries of the present era. It involves the study of biblical texts, Mishnaic discussions, and includes application and appropriation of these matters to Jewish life at the time of the particular segment represented in the text. The Talmud today appears in the form of two compilations, the Palestinian (incorrectly called the Jerusalem Talmud, or Talmud Yecusalmi), and the Babylonian (Talmud Bavli). These collections are respectively from the academies of Palestine and Babylon, where a sizeable community of Jews still lived.

Thus, Hebrew Bible, Mishna and Talmud now form the sacred literature of the Jew. He does not aspire to the building of a Temple and the reinstitution of the Sacrificial Cultus of the Old Testament. This is one of the most widely misunderstood aspects of Judaism, especially among premillennialists and dispensationalists. The activities and institutions that gave rise to the origin of talmudic Judaism can be traced back to the period of the Babylonian Exile. It provided an impetus for the formation in embryonic form of the synagogue (bet ba-keneset), with its nonsacrificial form of worship (“I have been a sanctuary to them,” Ezek. 11:16), and the schoolhouse (bet ba-midrash) where Divine service assumed the form of Torah study. After the fall of the Temple in 70 A.D., Johanan taught that what God wanted from Israel was not a Messianic war but irenic acts of loving kindness, the atonement for the new age in the place of the old Temple sacrifices. His philosophy has since been universally recognized by Jews as the correct one.

What Modern Judaism Believes

The greatest affirmation of Judaism is the oneness of God. The Shema (“Hear. . . “) of Deuteronomy 6:4 is the basic statement of that belief: “Hear, 0 Israel: The Lord our God is One.” In the face of ancient polytheism Judaism shone like a light in the darkness so long as she upheld this creed. Judaism was the first to accept what is today shared by almost all living religions today, namely, that underlying the endless variety of life there is a single purpose, a single reality. That reality is God. Yet even this most basic idea of Jewish faith is not shared by all Jews. Some are as atheistic or agnostic as the humanistic infidel. Their attachment to Judaism may be purely hereditary and social. Again, it is hard to say what all Jews believe, even with regard to this most fundamental thing.

Most everything that Jews do accept as true is dependent upon where a particular group or individual stands relative to the three divisions within Judaism. For most of their history most Jews could be said to be “orthodox,” that is, they believed in and followed the laws written in the holy books. But the changes brought on by modern thought have led to divisions within the Jewish community. Each Jewish congregation is self-ruled or autonomous; there is no central religious leader in Judaism. Yet three district groups have developed over issues of “modernism.”

Orthodox Judaism. Orthodox Jews remain faithful to the ancient traditions, interpreting them very strictly and attempting to practice them in their individual lives. Dietary and Sabbath restrictions are carefully observed. Hebrew is used in the synagogue services, and special schools train their children in Hebrew history and language. They also look for the coming of the Messiah.

Conservative Judaism. Conservative Jews hold to the Torah, but accept the place of modern scholarship in its interpretation. Traditional forms of worship are continued, with Hebrew used in the services. They are more lenient on dietary and Sabbath laws.

Reform Judaism. Reform Judaism is a modern American attempt at adapting Judaism to twentieth-century Western life. Worship is similar to Protestant Christian groups, with families sitting together for services and organ music and choirs. The liturgy is in Hebrew but the sermon in English. Theirs is the most liberal approach to the traditions of the past.

Even in the face of opportunity to return to Palestine and make a homeland for Jews, the Exilic concept of worship and service to God has led most to remain where they are. While Israel has opened its gates to Jews from throughout the world, still the largest Jewish community on earth is found in New York City. Land, Temple, Priesthood and Sacrifice are all ideas which have been replaced by study of the Torah and deeds of loving kindness, largely the contribution of Post-exilic Rabbis and their learned academies.

Judaism and Christianity

Since Judaism and Christianity both have their problems with Liberalism and modernistic thought, and that is a discussion all its own, we shall concentrate our thoughts around four basic ideas defended by traditional Jews and leave alone criticism of Reformed thinking.

The first and most basic problem with Judaism as we know it today is one which Jesus wrestled with and condemned in his Pharisaic contemporaries. This is the tendency to heap human traditions upon the Divine Law and give equal weight to tradition in deciding an issue. Jesus rejected the notion that the Oral Law was handed down directly from Sinai. He saw it as a human innovation displacing the Word of God: “You leave the commandment of God, and hold fast the tradition of men. . . . You have a fine way of rejecting the commandment of God, in order to keep your tradition!” (Mk. 7:8,9) On the Pharisee’s argument about Corban, Jesus said they made “void the word of God through your tradition which you hand down. And many such things you do” (Mk. 7:13). God gave his Word by inspired prophets who spoke and wrote God’s own words. “Making a fence around the Law” was the idea of men. It is the seedbed of the traditionalism which produced the Mishna and the Talmud. The result of such human regulations is that God’s will is often passed over for the observation of human statutes.

The second element of Judaism wherein it differs from a biblical viewpoint is the approach it has toward Temple and Sacrifice. The Hebrew Bible demanded animal sacrifice as appeasement of God and atonement for men’s sins. All the reasonings of the Rabbis notwithstanding, if one accepts the legitimacy of the Hebrew Testament in the present era then there ought to be a Temple and the blood of sacrifices ought to be offered in it. The arguments for their being discontinued are post-biblical in their origin and pragmatic rather than scriptural in their foundation. For Christians the disappearance of Temple and Sacrifice represents no difficulty at all, since Christ has offered the final sacrifice for sin, accomplishing what the blood of bulls and goats could never do (Heb. 10:1-10).

The third point relates to the Law. The largest body of adherents to Judaism reject the observance of the dietary and other requirements of the Hebrew Bible. While we may agree that concentration upon deeds of charity and benevolence toward humanity are more uplifting and worthwhile in the present day – still it is not consistent with the notion that the Hebrew Testatment is still in effect and its Laws binding upon Jews. If the Law is yet binding, then let faithful Jews obligate themselves to observe it in all of its parts: “Cursed be he who does not confirm the words of this law by doing them” (Deut. 27:26; Gal. 3:10). If unwilling to do so, then allow that the Old Testament has been fulfilled and taken out of the way as the New Testament proclaims (Jer. 31:31; Heb. 8:8).

The fourth and most critical issue relates to the Messiah. While many Jews do not believe at all in a personal Messiah that is to come (liberal Jews prefer to think of every man as a messiah who does whatever he can to advance the cause of right), others still believe the Messiah will usher in the Age to Come. Of course, they reject the Messiahship of Jesus and the validity of the New Testament scriptures. As Samuel Sandmel wrote: “When we Jews have understood explanations, and when we have not, we have consistently rejected the Christian claims about Jesus. We have not believed that Jesus was the Messiah; we have not been willing to call him Lord; we have not believed that the Logos became incarnate as Jesus; we have not believed that Jesus was, or is, the very Godness of God” (We Jews and Jesus, p. vii). Yet for most Jews he has been viewed as a beneficial person in some respects: “Jesus is, for the Jewish nation, a great teacher of morality and artist in parable. He is the moralist for whom, in the religious life, morality counts for everything” (Joseph Klausner, Jesus of Nazareth, p. 413). And, while he is counted by most as a good Jewish man, he is seen as no more than this. For all Christians he is, “The Christ, the Son of the Living God” (Matt. 16:16). The Lord himself portrayed this rejection by the Jews of his own day as more than a mere intellectual decision: “I told you that you would die in your sins, for you will die in your sins unless you believe that I am He” (Jn. 8:24).

Guardian of Truth XXXIV: 10, pp. 291-293
May 17, 1990

By Mark Mayberry

Introduction

Hinduism is one of the oldest living religions in the world. Followers of this religion can be found scattered around the world, nevertheless Hinduism is most closely associated with India. “Hinduism has its roots in the civilization that flourished in the Indus valley some 5,000 years ago, but did not develop as a formal religion until the conquest of the subcontinent by the Aryans of Central Asia in about 1,500 B.C.”(1) As Hinduism evolved over the centuries, “it continually absorbed and reinterpreted the beliefs and practices of the different peoples with whom it came into contact.”(2) Most Hindus live in India, but the faith is also practiced in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, etc.(3) Having between 500-600 million adherents worldwide, Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion, behind Christianity and Islam.

In recent years, Hinduism has had a strong influence in the United States and Europe. Many have turned to Eastern philosophy as a reaction against Western materialism. Hare Krishnas with their orange robes and shaven heads are a common sight in many large cities. Transcendental Meditation, when stripped of its “scientific” vocabulary, is essentially a Hindu discipline. The New Age movement promotes the concepts of Eastern religion in general and Hinduism in particular.

A. Basic Beliefs of Hinduism

Hinduism is exceedingly difficult for the Western mind to comprehend. It has no single founder or prophet, no particular ecclesiastical or institutional structure, and no established creed or dogma. This religion embraces a wide diversity of beliefs and practices. A Hindu is free to adopt any religious concept that he likes. For example, the vast majority of Hindus have some sort of belief in God, but others do not. A Hindu may conceive of God in personal or impersonal terms. He may worship one god, a few gods, a thousand gods, or none at all!

In blending together many different elements, Hinduism forms a complex but largely continuous whole. In many ways, Hinduism is more of a culture than a creed. Since it encompasses a whole way of life, it has religious, social, economic, literary and artistic expression. Although Hinduism resists a precise definition, there is a common set of characteristics shared by most Hindus which can be identified.(4)

1. Tolerance?

On the surface, Hinduism appears to be an inclusive faith. The Hindu feels that every religious system contains the essential ingredients of truth. However, he views his religion as “more equal” than the others. Furthermore, the traditional tolerant image of Hinduism is not all-together accurate.

In India, where 85 percent of the population is classifieci as Hindu, other religions are officially recognized. However, sectarian violence is a fact of life in India. Bloody clashes frequently occur between Hindus and various religious minorities. In recent years, those who have converted from Hinduism to other religions have suffered persecution.(5)

One powerful Hindu organization, Rashtriya Swayam Sevak (RSS, the Hindu words mean “National Pure Service”), has urged the expulsion of all foreign missionaries from India and an official ban on foreign funds received by churches. This highly nationalistic group is devoted to restoring a Hindu society free from the influence of Christianity, Islam, etc.(6)

In Nepal, were Hinduism is the official religion, freedom of worship is guaranteed for the nation’s Buddhist, Moslem and Christian minorities. However, proselyting is illegal in this Hindu kingdom. Anyone who is convicted of trying to convert a Hindu to Christianity faces up to six years of imprisonment.(7) As you can see, Hindu tolerance is more myth than reality.

2. Sacred Writings

Hinduism has no single book, like the Bible, that serves as its foundation. Instead it has many sacred writings which have contributed to its beliefs. The most important of these writings include (1) the Vedas, (2) the Puranas, (3) the Ramayana, (4) the Mahabharata, (5) the BhagavadGita, and (6) the Manu Smriti.(8) The first group of writings are the oldest Hindu scriptures. The second group are a collection of long verse stories that contain many important Hindu legends. The third and fourth groups are long epics. The fifth document is a philosophical work which discusses the meaning and nature of existence. The final book is the basic source of Hindu religious and social law.(9)

3. Divinities

Hinduism is a polytheistic religion. The vast Hindu pantheon is populated by no less than 330 million gods. However, all these gods are ultimately viewed as different incarnations of the all-embracing Brahman. He is the Supreme Being, the Universal Spirit, the Source of all life. Next in importance to Brahman comes the Hindu trinity of Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer. Other wellknown deities include Ganesha, the elephant-headed god; Kali or Durga, the consort of Shiva; Lakshmi, the Vishnu’s wife, the goddess of fortune and beauty; Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu and one of the most popular Hindu gods; Hanuman, the monkey-faced god, etc.(10)

4. Reincarnation and Karma

“The Hindus believe that man’s fate is not worked out in a single life on earth, but in a series of many existences stretching from the dim past into the distant future.”(11) According to Hindu teaching, when the body dies, the soul returns to earth in another form. This continuing cycle of death and rebirth is called reincarnation. Closely related to this concept is the law of karma, which states that each person will be rewarded or punished in their next life according to deeds in their present life. Every action, regardless of how small, influences how one’s soul will be reincarnated. If a person lives a good life, his soul will be reborn in a higher state, perhaps as a ruler or a priest. If a person leads an evil life, his soul will be born into a lower state, perhaps as a common laborer or a slave. An individual pays for his sins by being placed in a worse situation in the next life. In fact, a person may not necessarily be reincarnated as a human. He may have been a plant or an animal in a previous life and may become one again. This belief helps, explain the reverence that Hindus feel for all forms of life. All living things are a part of this perpetual cycle of existence. Supposedly, this process of reincarnation continues until a person reaches self-realizaton, or spiritual perfection. Then the soul is released from the cycle of life and death, and is absorbed into the Divine Being. Having once merged with the infinite, it never returns to this life.

The Hindu philosophy of existence is well summarized by the following statement: “A man’s lifetime is like a bead on a necklace whose other beads represent past and future lifetimes. Each soul, or atman, strives through successive rebirths to ascend the scale of merit until – after a life of rectitude, self-control, nonviolence, charity, reverence for all living creatures, and devotion to ritual – it wins liberation from worldly existence to achieve union with Brahman.”(12)

5. The Caste System

Hindu society is structured by a elaborate caste system where an individual finds himself locked into a network of complex relationships. This arrangement originated around 1500 B.C. when India was invaded by Aryans from central Asia. After conquering the land, these light-skinned invaders imposed a rigid system of social distinction upon the darkskinned people of India. Different groups were assigned different roles, and social contact between these groups was strictly forbidden. This was done to keep the “inferior” native peoples of India from mixing with the “superior” conquerors from Asia. Over time, the caste system became intricately connected with Hindu religion.

Hindu society is divided into four principal castes that are based mainly on occupation. These groups are ranked as follows: (1) the Brahmans, the priests and scholars, are the highest caste; (2) the Kshatriyas, the rulers and warriors, are next in order of prestige; (3) then comes the Vaisyas, the merchants and professionals; (4) and lastly are the Sudras, the craftsman and laborers.(13) Furthermore, these four basic groups have evolved into more than 3,000 subcastes, each with its own rights, obligations and rituals. “Except for unusual cases, caste is immutably fixed at birth; it limits a Hindu’s choice of occupation, marriage partner, dress, eating habits, religious practice, and his freedom to move about.”(14)

In addition, millions of Hindus belong to no caste at all. This large group, formerly known as the Untouchables, but now called Scheduled castes, is ranked lower than the lowest caste. Members of this group are restricted to performing the most menial jobs such as cleaning latrines, handling animal carcases, tanning leather, etc. Until recent years, these outcasts had no rights whatever. Considered polluted, they could not use the same wells, walk the same paths, attend the same schools, or worship in the same temples as caste members. However, thanks to the work of Mahatma Gandhi and other reformers, discrimination against the Untouchables was made illegal. The 1950 Constitution of India gave full citizenship to members of this community.

The caste system itself has weakened over the years. Education, technology and contact with the modern world has tended to diminish its influence. Hindus from different castes now freely mix with one another. However, ancient traditions die hard, and especially in the countryside, the caste system remains an unfortunate fact of life.

6. Hindu Worship

Hindu worship takes many forms. The daily worship, or puja, of a typical Hindu would include a visit to the temple, a stop at several shrines, and home worship.

Temple Worship: Hindu temples are filled with many shrines, each representing a different god. The sculptured images are treated as living human beings for it is believed that the divinities are actually present in the images. Food offerings are set before them daily, and the priests wash and dress the images as if they were alive.(15)

A Hindu may worship together with others, or he may sit alone and meditate in a corner. The incantation of a mantra is a central part of Hindu worship wherein a sacred word, such as om, is chanted over and over. Eastern religion affirms that reality cannot be known through reason but through the soul’s intuition of itself, and thus meditation is the route to enlightenment. It is designed to bring one into union with the Absolute.

Home Worship: Because of the importance of home worship, Hindus can fully participate in the ceremonies of their religion while rarely going to temples. Home worship involves meditation, prayer, the reading of sacred texts, and offering food, flowers, or incense to the family god. Most homes have a shrine devoted to the family deity, and wealthy Hindus may have a room set aside exclusively for worship.

The Worship of Saints: Hindus worship both living and dead men as saints. Local village heroes may be elevated to sainthood. Gurus and yogis are both venerated and revered. Since everything is sacred in Hinduism, almost anything can become an object of worship: rivers, trees, plants, etc. Many animals are worshiped as gods, but cows are considered most sacred. A Hindu would rather starve to death than kill a cow for food.

B. A Comparison with Christianity

1. The Concept of Revelation. A Hindu’s faith is based on superstition, mythology and legend. Many of the beliefs and practices of Hinduism actually contradict each other. However, such unfounded speculations are no match for the certainty of Scripture. Man has not been left to grope in darkness. God has spoken (Heb. 1:1-2; Eph. 3:3-5), and his word is Truth (Jn. 17:17; Jas. 1: 18). The Bible, a divine revelation free from all contradiction and error, is our guide through time to eternity (Psa. 119:105; 2 Tim. 3:16-17).

2. The Concept of God. Hinduism is an idolatrous religion in which countless gods are worshiped. However, the Bible presents Jehovah as the One True God (Deut. 6:4-5; 1 Tim. 1:17). He is omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent, perfect in holiness, love, mercy, etc. He is a personal God who demands our full obedience and complete devotion. The Bible prohibits the use of images or idols in the worship of God (Exo. 20:3-4), and exposes the foolishness of pagan idolatry (Psa. 135:15-18; Isa. 44; 45:20).

3. The Concept of Man. Hindu doctrine affirms that both animals and humans have souls. However, the Bible teaches that man is unique in God’s creation. Man is a dual being, composed of body and spirit, who is made in the image of God (Gen. 1:26-27). He was made a little lower than the angels but was given dominion over the animal creation (Psa. 8:4-8).

Whereas Hinduism envisions the flow of life through many existences, Christianity focuses on the importance of decision making within the context of one life. According to the Scriptures, death involves the separation of the body and the spirit (Jas. 2:26). When a person dies, the body of flesh returns to the dust, while the eternal spirit returns to God (Eccl. 12:7). God’s word affirms that we die only once, and after that comes the judgment (Heb. 9:27)! Those who have done good will be rewarded with eternal life, but those who have done evil will suffer eternal damnation (Jn. 5:28-29).

4. The Concept of Salvation. If there was ever a religion that taught salvation based on human merit, it is Hinduism. Through a series of reincarnations, those who perform good deeds eventually are liberated from this earthly existence and achieve oneness with Brahman. However, the Bible plainly reveals that man cannot earn salvation (Eph. 2:8-9; Tit. 3:5). Pardon and forgiveness are made possible only through the atoning sacrifice of Christ (Jn. 3:16).

The Hindu views every religion as true and a path to truth. Other religions are but different roads that ultimately converge on the same spot. However, the Bible teaches that fellowship with God can be achieved only through Christ Jesus (Jn. 14:6). His will must be obeyed if we are to have any hope of eternal life (Heb. 5:8-9; 2 Thess. 1:7-9).

5. The Concept of Worship. The bizarre rituals of Hinduism are in no way reflective of the worship that God desires. The Bible teaches that our worship must be “in spirit and in truth” (Jn. 4:23-24). In other words, it must be offered with the proper attitude and according to the proper form. Therefore, it is imperative that our worship follow the New Testament pattern (Col. 3:17; 1 Pet. 4:11).

Conclusion

The idolatrous religion of Hinduism is a dismal and fatalistic philosophy, devoid of truth and light. However well meaning faithful Hindus may be, they are misguided believers in a benighted faith. Apart from Divine guidance, man is lost in darkness and despair. Yet, praise be to God for his glorious revelation of truth! The gospel of Christ represents God’s plan of salvation for lost mankind. Those who would be saved must wholeheartedly embrace the Christian religion. Christ Jesus is the only hope of the world!

Endnotes

1. United Press International, April 14, 1986.

2. Collier’s Encyclopedia, c. 1984, s.v. “Hinduism.”

3. Encyclopedia Britannica: Micropaedia, c. 1985, s.v. “Hinduism.”

4. Encyclopedia Britannica: Micropaedia, c. 1985, s.v. “Hinduism.”

5. “Some Low-Caste Indians Turn to Christianity, and Hindus Retaliate,” Christianity Today, August 6, 1982, p. 43; see also Jayashree B. Gokhale, “Castaways of Caste,” Natural History, October, 1986, pp. 31-37.

6. “Interreligious Conflict,” The Chrisitan Century, July 1, 1987, p. 586.

7. United Press International, March 2, 1989.

8. World Book Encyclopedia, 1988 Edition, s.v. “Hinduism.”

9. World Book Encyclopedia, 1988 Edition, s.v. “Hinduism.”

10. R. Pierce Beaver, Jan Bergman, et.al., ed., “The Hindu Gods,” Eerdman’s Handbook to the World’s Religions (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1982), p. 184.

11. “Hinduism,” Senior Scholastic, November 18, 1976, p. 19.

12. Amiya Chakravarty, “Quest for the Universal One,” Great Religions of the World (Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1978), p. 37.

13. World Book Encyclopedia, 1988 Edition, s.v. “Hinduism.”

14. Chakravarty, p. 40.

15. American Academic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Hinduism.”

Guardian of Truth XXXIV: 10, pp. 300-303
May 17, 1990

By Mike Willis

When a university student signs up for a course on “World Religions,” he is likely to experience the most blatant attack against the doctrines of his faith in Christ which he has faced. The religion departments of most state and private universities are factories of infidelity. A course on world religions is an effective tool used by the devil to undermine one’s faith in the Bible and the Lord Jesus Christ.

The Evolutionary Development of Religion

The evolutionary hypothesis has permeated every discipline of science, including biology, sociology, psychology, history, geology, and religion. Infidelity rejects the existence of God, revelation, and the miraculous. Consequently, the explanation of the existence of religion must fit philosophical naturalism.

Religion exists. From where did it come? Infidels deny a divine origin and instead have taught that it evolved. The evolutionary development of religion, according to philosophical naturalism, occurred in these distinctive, but overlapping, steps:

1. Animism. Animism is the “belief that natural phenomena and objects, as rocks, trees, the wind, etc., are alive and have souls.” Primitive man began his religious journey by worshiping the forces of nature.

2. Pantheism. Pantheism is “the doctrine or belief that God is not a personality, but that all laws, forces, manifestations, etc., of the self-existing universe are God; the belief that God is everything and everything is God.” This was the second step in primitive man’s religious growth.

3. Polytheism. Polytheism is the “belief in or worship of many gods, or more than one god.” After man began attributing deity to the natural powers which he did not understand, he began to worship different gods who were thought to control the unknown things of nature (a god of the sun, a god of thunder, a god of war, etc.).

4. Henotheism. Henotheism is the attributing supreme power to one of several deities, having one chief god over all of the other gods. This was an intermediate step between polytheism and monotheism.

5. Monotheism. The next development was belief in the existence of but one God. Some world religion professors believe that monotheism is the highest expression of religion; atheistic professors believe there are two more steps in the evolutionary development of religion.

5. Agnosticism. Agnosticism is “the doctrine that God is unknown and unknowable.” Agnostics differ. Some believe that one is unable to know whether or not God exists; other believe that God exists but conclude that we cannot know certainly anything about him.

6. Atheism. Atheism is the denial of the existence of God. The humanists of our century believe that the 21st century will be the century of “humanism,” another name for atheism. Humanists believe that man has outgrown the need for God and is ready to discard him as an archaic part of man’s past.

This is a concise statement of the theory of the evolutionary development of religion. The doctrine of the evolutionary development leads to these conclusions:

1. Religion is man’s groping to find God. Whereas the Bible reveals that the Creator God revealed himself to man, infidelity describes the Bible as man’s groping to find God. The Bible is said to be man’s subjective ideas about God.

2. All of man’s gropings are equally valid. One man’s groping to find God is just as good as any other man’s groping after God. No religion is the only truth; each religion contains some good and some evil. Modern man should examine the contribution of every religion, culling the bad and keeping the good. (Who or what defines “good” and “bad” is not told to us.)

3. A superior religion is merely one which has progressed further and faster than the others. The higher a religion is on the scale of evolutionary development, the more superior it is. Hence, atheism is the highest form of religion.

4. There is nothing supernatural in religion. Every religion has myth and folklore. The miracles of the Bible are no different from the miracles of the Koran, Rig-Vedas, or other “inspired” literature.

These ideas are taught in the world religions classes offered in the universities in America, many of which are supported by tax dollars. Americans are funding the teaching of atheism, agnosticism, modernism, and other forms of infidelity.

What the Evolutionary Theory Does for Faith

The doctrine of the evolutionary development of religion attacks the faith of God in many places, including these:

1. It makes the Bible an uninspired book. Instead of the Bible being the only divine revelation from God to man, a revelation which furnishes man completely for salvation (2 Tim. 3:16-17), the Bible is reduced to man’s subjective thoughts. It is made equal to the Koran, Rig-Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, and other “holy” books of the religions of mankind.

2. It makes Jesus only a ‘prophet.'” Instead of being God incarnate, Jesus is reduced to the level of Muhammad, Confucius, Zoroaster, Buddha, etc. Jesus is no longer the perfect sacrifice for sin; he is made to be a religious leader with a message far ahead of his own time.

3. It makes the miraculous of the Bible myth and folklore. The doctrine of the evolutionary development of religion makes the miraculous of the Bible myth and folklore which have grown up around the history of Jesus. The doctrine denies that Jesus performed miracles and was raised from the dead. This approach to the Bible methodically removes the miracles from the Bible story, which miracles confirmed that Jesus was the Christ the son of the living God.

4. It makes every moral and doctrinal judgment subjective. Having removed the Bible as the one divine source of authority, there are no moral or doctrinal absolutes. Every moral and doctrinal judgment is subjective.

5. It makes the church but one among many legitimate expressions of religion. The idea of one right way is considered religious bigotry (nearly anything can be tolerated in religion except the concept that there is but one right way).

These are the cardinal doctrines which are undermined by the theory of the evolutionary development of religion. The young person who enters a world religions classroom needs to be prepared to face these issues or his faith will be destroyed!

The Biblical Explanation

Where did the so-called “world religions” originate? The Bible reveals a different answer than do modern professors in world religions classes.

The Bible states that the Creator God revealed himself to man (Gen. 1-2). Man refused to walk in the commandments of God, choosing to rebel against his will (cf. Gen. 3-5). Romans 1 details this rejection of God in these words:

For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness; because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath shewed it unto them . . . . Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, and changed the glory of the uncorruptible God into the image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four footed beasts, and creeping things. Wherefore God gave them up (1:18-24).

The first chapter of Romans details the moral degradation which followed the rejection of God’s revelation of himself to man (1:24-32).

Hence, the Bible revelation states that the man refused to have God in his knowledge, rejecting God to invent his own kinds of gods, worship, and morality. The world religions, as they presently exist, are the surviving forms of the apostasies from God’s revelation. The good which exists in these religions are the vestiges of the light which remain in a religion which has departed from God. The further removed from God the religion is, the less light there is in it; the less removed from God, the more light exists.

Can One Be Saved in the World Religions?

The adherents to the various, non-Christian “world religions” are “without excuse” (Rom. 1:18). They have “sinned without the law” and “shall also perish without the law” (Rom. 2:12). “All” are “under sin” (Rom. 3:9); “all the world may become guilty before God” (Rom. 3:19). “For all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God” (Rom. 3:23). There is no salvation available to any man through the so-called world religions (Jn. 14:6; Acts 4:12).

The world religions, with the worship of many and different gods both with and without idols, are displeasing to God. The Lord God will not allow another god to be worshiped (Exod. 20:1-3; Deut. 6:14; 2 Kgs. 17:35; Jer. 25:6). Jehovah is the only God; all other gods are non-existent creations of one’s imagination (I Cor. 8:4), the work and worship of the devil (1 Cor. 10: 19). Whether we speak of the pagan gods of Bible times (Baal, Chemosh, Ashtaroth, Diana, Zeus, Hermes, etc.) or the twentieth century (Allah, Indra, Vritra, Buddha, ancestor spirits, Tao, etc.) we are speaking of idolatry. The worship of other gods, with or without idols, is condemned by God (Exod. 20:1-4; cf. Lev. 19:4; 26:1; 2 Kgs. 17:12; Isa. 2:8; Acts 15:20,29; 21:25; 1 Cor. 5:10,11; 6:9; 10:7,14; Gal. 5:20; etc.).

Hence, the religions of the world originated in rebellion against God. They are apostasies from God which cannot save a soul from eternal damnation.

What Stance Should We Take Toward the World Religions?

A number of different stances are being taken and suggested for mankind toward the various religions of the world. Here are some of them:

1. Ignore them and they will go away. Some believe that non-Christian religions will eventually self-destruct. Some imagine that men will forsake their inferior religions when they are taught a superior religion (Christianity). This simply does not work. While we wait for men to recognize the superiority of Christianity, many souls die outside of Christ, lost and doomed to eternal damnation.

2. Recognize non-Christian religions as sister or kindred faiths. This is the stance of the mainline Protestant denominations. The mainline denominations condemn “proselyting” men from non-Christian religions to Christianity as morally and psychologically wrong, as well as being unwise. The book Bangkok ’73 which commented on the World Mission Conference, held under the auspices of the World Council of Churches, reported the call for a ban on efforts to convert the heathen to Christianity.

3. Effect some kind of amalgamation with the non-Christian religions. The modernists among the denominations suggest syncretism or amalgamation with the non-Christian religions to produce a new religion, greater and better than either of the two.

4. Treat Christianity as the fulfillment or completion of the imperfect non-Christain religions. This view sees Christianity, not as revealed religion, but as the highest religion along the evolutionary scale. This view tries to destroy the

elements of false religion which are “bad” (the caste system, greed, etc.), and point men toward the “better” things in a continually evolving Christianity.

5. Warfare. This approach toward the non-Christian religion states that Christianity is in a life and death struggle with every form of unrevealed religion. There is no room for syncretism of Christianity with the worship of other gods and idolatry. This clearly was the stance of the first century church and also should be our stance toward the religions of the world. Paul commanded,

Be ye not unequally yoked together with unbelievers: for what fellowship hath righteousness with unrighteousness? And what communion hath light with darkness? And what concord hath Christ with Belial? Or what part hath he that believeth with an infidel? And what agreement hath the temple of God with idols? . . . Wherefore come out from among them, and be ye separate, said the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing; and I will receive you (2 Cor. 6:14-7:1).

The word of God is the sword of the Spirit to be used to destroy every religion and thought that conflicts with what God has revealed (2 Cor. 10:3-4). Christianity is to exterminate false religion, not ally itself with it.

Christianity does not need the “contributions” of the world religion. The word of God is an all-sufficient revelation (2 Tim. 3:16-17; 2 Pet. 1:3-4); the fullness of the Godhead was in Christ, the all-sufficient sacrifice for sin (Col. 2:9); the church of Christ is the “fulness of him that filleth all in all” (Eph. 1:22-23). Hence, there are no inadequacies in divine religion for humanly devised religion to fill.

The stance which first century Christians took toward all religion was that of warfare. First century Christians told every sect of the Jews that salvation was only available to them through Christ, saying:

Neither is there salvation in any other: for there is none other name under heaven given among men, whereby we must be saved (Acts 4:12).

For Moses truly said unto the fathers, A prophet shall the Lord your God raise up unto you of your brethren, like unto me; him shall ye hear in all things whatsoever he say say unto you. And it shall come to pass, that every soul, which will not hear that prophet, shall be destroyed from among the people (Acts 3:22-23).

Jesus saith unto him, I am the way, the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father, but by me (Jn. 14:6).

When the gospel of Christ was taken outside the boundaries of the Jews into the non-Christian world, beginning with Cornelius, the message was the same. Good moral men like Cornelius were told to obey the gospel of Christ in order to be saved from sin (Acts 11:14). Paul taught non-Christian Gentiles to “turn from these vanities unto the living God, which made heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are therein” (Acts 14:15). He told them to depart from those things which they worshipped in ignorance (Acts 17:23) to worship the Creator through Jesus Christ.

. . . we ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and man’s device. And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now commandeth all men every where to repent: because he hath appointed a day, in the which he will judge the world in righteousness by that man whom he hath ordained; whereof he hath given assurance unto all men, in that he hath raised him from the dead (Acts 17:29-31).

This is the same gospel message we need to be preaching to the Jews and Gentiles of our days, to Hindus, Buddhists, Islarns, Taoists, Sikhs, Shintoists, Confucianists, etc.

Conclusion

The early church surveyed the religious alternatives offered by Judaism and concluded that every Jew needed to come to Christ for salvation. The early church then surveyed the religious alternatives which Gentiles offered, among which were some of the presently existing “world religions” and concluded that every Gentile needed to come to Christ for salvation. We dare not reach a different conclusion today. Neither the Jews nor the Gentiles have found a sacrifice for sin! There is but one way to salvation – through the shed blood of Jesus Christ! The poet Birdie Bell expressed it well in “Only One Way”:

There is only one way to the kingdom of God,

‘Tis the old-fashioned way of the cross;

You must come to the Savior, pass under the blood,

You must count earthly pleasures as dross.

There is only one way,

‘Tis the old fashioned way,

You will find it today,

If you come to the cross,

And are washed in the sin-cleansing blood.

There is still only one way to be saved from sin and to live eternally with God!

Guardian of Truth XXXIV: 10, pp. 290, 317-319
May 17, 1990

By Shane Scott

For most Americans knowledge of Confucius is limited to the quotations found on slips of paper inside fortune cookies. However, it is not an exaggeration to state that Confucius’ impact on China was and is as powerful as the influence of Jesus Christ on the Western world. Though the World Almanac lists only 5,914,00 followers of Confucianism in the world (only 0.1 percent of the world’s population), that statistic is deceptive. As the Encyclopedia Britannia observes: “East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintoists, Taoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians, but, by announcing their religious affiliations, seldom do they cease to be Confucians.”(1) Consequently, the number of Confucians in China is more likely 300 million.(2)Whatever the actual number of adherents to Confucianism is, no one can deny the powerful bearing Confucianism has on the world’s most populous nation.

Historical Background

An understanding of the world in which Confucius lived is essential in order to appreciate what Confucius taught. The country into which Confucius was born was gripped by civil war. The well ordered feudal system of China had disintegrated. The struggle for power by various feudal lords resulted in terrible bloodshed. Mass slaughters of incredible barbarism occurred. One reported bloodbath took 400,000 lives.

But the world of Confucius was also a religious world. To the Chinese, all of life had a pattern, a pattern which consisted of the eternal relationship between the Yang (the active, the positive) and the Yin (the receptive, the negatives). Indeed, all of life was contingent; that is, the meaning love depended on comparing it with hate, life with death, and so on.(3) The key to successful living, then, was to find the balance between yang and yin. The focus of Chinese religious thinking was on this world, not on “God.”

The Life of Confucius

Little is known about Confucius. The main source for information concerning him personally is a work called The Analects, a collection of his sayings accumulated by his followers. Chiu King (Confucius’ real name) was born in 551 B.C. This places Confucius contemporary with Buddha and just prior to Socrates. Confucius was raised by his mother, having lost his father at the age of three. Poverty marked his early life, and he was forced into manual labor to provide for the family. Confucius went into civil service and held various small posts, but his real calling in life was as a tutor and teacher. In fact, his fame as a teacher grew so much that he began to be called Kung-Fu-tzu, “Kung the Master” (our English word “Confucius” is the Anglicized form of Kung-Fu-tzu).

As a teacher, Confucius was deeply interested in teaching and preserving the classic ancient traditions of China. Confucius believed that the only way to restore order and balance to war torn China was to implement the ancient way of doing things. Confucius summarized this way in five principle terms.

The Tenets of Confucianism

The first of these terms, and the foundation of all the others is jen, the quality of humaneness. Jen is the basic respect for human dignity, for others as well as yourself. Others were to be afforded the same honor and kindness that you wanted for yourself. This principle is often called the “silver rule” since it resembles the “golden rule” of Jesus in Matthew 7:12.

The second tenet is chun-tzu, that is, being the ideal person. This term takes the quality of jen and puts it into habitual practice. Chun-tzu includes qualities like etiquette and politeness, but more importantly, it is attitude that was to pervade all circumstances. Li, the third principle, was the right pattern. Li means to do things the right way (e.g. using the right name for the right things, devotion to family, respect for age, etc.) and to use the correct ritual while doing them. Government by moral power, or Te, is the fourth concept. Confucius believed that feudal lords should demonstrate a high level of behavior in order to motivate their countrymen to live peaceably. The final term is wen, practicing the peaceful arts. Confucius felt that if the minds of the people were busily engaged in the finer things of life they would not be so easily inclined to butcher one another.

In formulating these principle Confucius did not consider himself an innovator, but rather a transmitter of the ancient into the modern. Most of his life was spent in attempting to implement these reforms. For a short time Confucius was a high official in the Lu province, and his policies were immediately successful. However, some sort of political intrigue forced him out of office. The next thirteen years Confucius traveled throughout China in search of more opportunities to share his ideas.(4)

The last few years of his life were spent editing the classical literature he loved. Confucius died in the year 479 B.C., at the age of 73. He certainly did not realize that his work would have such a far-reaching influence on China.

The Spread of Confucianism

The philosophy of Confucius spread in his own time through his tutoring and editing. But, the impact of Confucianism was also furthered by his later disciples, most notably Mencius (Meng-tzu), a follower of one of Confucius’ grandsons. The principle work of Mencius (born in 371 B.C.) was to crystalize the Confucian view of man, which we will examine more closely later.

Like most religious movements, Confucianism has had its peaks and valleys. A major revival in Confucianism began in the 12th century A.D., known as “Neo-Confucianism.”(5) The two major reformers in this era were Chu Hsi (1130-1200) and Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529). Chu Hsi emphasized observing the Li, the right pattern, in human and natural relationships. The thrust of Wang Yang-ming’s efforts centered on achieving enlightenment through meditation and moral action.

As time passed, the degree of reverence for Confucius grew, so that by 1906 Confucius was declared a deity on equal footing with heaven and earth.(6) For centuries Confucius’ teachings were the basis of education in China and were even used for civil service exams. Though the Marxist revolution originally condemned Confucianism, government opposition ended in 1977, and it is not likely that the position of the government ever seriously altered the faith of the Chinese people in Confucianism. And, in Taiwan, Confucianism is still the rule.

Basic Religious Beliefs

Confucius believed in heaven, and in fact he felt although his teachings had the sanction of heaven.(7) However, the primary focus of Confucianism, as in all Chinese religions, is on this life, not heaven. Knowledge about God or heaven is just not that important. Certainly, Confucianism was “a religion without any great speculation on the nature and function of God.”(8) In fact, some scholars debate whether Confucianism can be viewed as a religious system at all. For our purposes though, such a debate is unnecessary. While Confucianism may not primarily be considered a “religion,” there is certainly some religious teaching in its overall ethical framework.

God and heaven are prominent concepts in Confucianism, but the problem is that those terms are very vaguely defined in Confucian thought. In Confucius’ day, “God” was a supreme being. However, “God” later was used to describe the moral force of the universe, and eventually “God” became the universe itself.

Man is very highly regarded in Confucianism. In fact, several scholars describe Confucianism as “optimistic humanism.” This is especially evident in the work of Mencius. According to Mencius, man’s good nature was as the natural downward flow of water. Though it could be perverted into flowing in another direction by an external force, water naturally flowed downward. Likewise, man’s nature was fundamentally good, though it also could be misdirected.(9)

Sin is not really spoken of in Confucianism, in part because the Confucian concept of God is so fuzzy. The only actions that could qualify as “sin” in Confucianism would be the violation of the five great principles outlined earlier. This kind of blurred vision of sin makes it extremely difficult to convert the Chinese. If a concrete view of sin does not exist, how can people be convinced of the damning impact sin entails, not to mention the need for a Savior?

Hence, salvation is a nebulous notion in Confucianism. Although Confucius believed in a realm of departed spirits, it is not clear what he believed about the status of those spirits. And the attention of the Neo-Confucians was centered on the moment when “the mind of man, precarious in its tendencies to good and evil, would be transformed into the mind of Heaven, the state of perfected excellence.”(10)

Confucianism and Christ

As far as its ethics are concerned, Confucianism has much to be commended. However, Confucianism is marred by one very fundamental flaw: it is but another attempt by natural man to provide all the direction he needs in life. Confucius did not see the need for special, divine revelation. To the contrary, “whatever seemed contrary to common sense in popular tradition, and whatever did not serve any discoverable social purpose, he regarded coldly.”(11) This is the Achilles heel of all philosophies that do not account for God. Without the support of divine revelation, Confucius’ teachings were no more authoritative than anyone else’s, regardless of the commendable quality of the morals he espoused (see Jet. 10:23).

Even Confucius’ highly touted “Silver Rule” falls short of the biblical standard. While he taught that he should treat others as we desired to be treated, Confucius stumbled at what our response should be in the event we were abused. When asked, “What do you think of repaying evil with kindness?” Confucius replied, “Then what are you going to repay kindness with?”(12) On this matter the doctrine of Christ clearly supersedes Confucius, for Jesus taught that evil should be repaid with kindness (Matt. 5:38-48; also Rom. 12:17-21).

Finally, the Confucian concept of man and his need for God is completely antagonistic to the Scriptures. While the Bible does not teach that man is hereditarily, totally depraved, it does teach that men commit evil (Eccl. 7:29). And, once man has sinned there is nothing he can do within himself to remove those sins. It is only through the death of Jesus and the trusting, obedient, and complete devotion to Christ that man can be saved (Tit. 3:5; Eph. 2:8-10; Acts 2:38).

From this study let’s learn the following lessons: (1) Be thankful that even though God is far above us (Isa. 55:8-9), he graciously revealed for us all that we need to be complete (2 Tim. 3:16-17). We do not have to blindly grope for him (Acts 17:27). (2) Appreciate the death of Jesus, for that act did what none of us could do. And, (3) strive to live your life as ethically pure as Jesus taught. Do not merely treat others as yourself, but openly love those who abuse you. This is our “upward calling” (Phil. 3:14).

Endnotes

1. Confucius and Confucianism. ” The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th edition, volume 16, p. 653.

2. Wilkins, Ronald J. Religions of the World (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown Co., 1974), p. 202.

3. In fact, it was this view that life’s meaning is dependent on the meaning of death that led the Chinese to revere their dead ancestors. See Wilkins, p. 202.

4. McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart. Handbook of Today’s Religions (San Bernadino, CA: Here’s Life Publishers, 1983), pp. 325-326.

5. Savin, N. “Confucianism.” World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 4, p. 756.

6. Berry, Gerald L. Religions of the World (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1947).

7. Berthrong, John. “Sages and Immortals: Chinese Religions,” Eerdman’s Handbook to the World’s Religions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), p. 248.

8. Berthrong, p. 247.

9. McDowell and Stewart, p. 327,336. It is crucial to remember that these authors are Calvinists, and they disagree with Mencius because of their belief in original sin. Be advised of this as you read their criticisms. In fact, all of these sources are either evangelical (thus Calvinistic for the most part) or liberal, so be careful!

10. Berthrong, p. 251.

11. Noss, John B. Man’s Religions (New York: Macmillan, 1956), p. 361

12. Noss, p. 351.

Guardian of Truth XXXIV: 10, pp. 309-311
May 17, 1990