Truth Magazine

By Rick Billingsley

In the days of those kings the God of heaven will set up a kingdom which will never be destroyed, and that kingdom will not be left for another people; it will crush and put an end to all these kingdoms, but it will itself endure forever (Dan. 2:44). 

Daniel is prophesying to the king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, that God will establish his kingdom (church) in the time of the fourth kingdom (Roman Empire). It will not be by accident, but by God’s providence that Rome will be a major world power that God will use to establish his kingdom. “. . . Daniel blessed the God of heaven: Daniel said, “Let the name of God be blessed forever and ever, For wisdom and power belong to Him. It is He who changes the times and the epochs; He removes kings and establishes kings; He gives wisdom to the wise men. . .” (Dan. 2:19-22).

To fully understand the political scene of the New Testament it would be beneficial to study the past political history of the New Testament (Inter-Testamental History). Neither time nor space will allow me to give a complete historical analysis of the political scene before the writing of the New Testament. It would be good for one to study the reign of Alexander the Great, Antiochus IV Epiphanes’ reign, the Maccabean Revolt, and the Hasmonean era. 

The Seleucids, Ptolemies, Hasmoneans, Herods, and Caesars all made their contributions to the prologue of history that introduced the coming of Christ. It was in the Roman world that Jesus Christ lived and did his work, and it was during this world that the church began and flourished, and the apostles lived and wrote their letters. A study of the political background of the New Testament gives us a deeper appreciation for the New Testament and the men who penned it (under the influence of the Holy Spirit) and the people who lived by it. Hopefully, by this study, our faith will be deepened, and our knowledge of the scriptures widened. 

The political arena that surrounded the life of Jesus and the apostles in the first century influenced their social status, their languages, their education, and to some extent, their religion. 
The Roman Empire achieved what previous empires had attempted with only partial success — the welding of many nationalities and peoples into one unified whole. The Roman government was able to maintain a more or less stable civil order for nearly half a millennium. The government was centered in Rome. The two principal authorities were the Emperor and the Senate. The Senate was made up of several hundred prominent leaders who had gained prestige, usually by their wealth. The Senate was supposed to serve as a check to the power of the Emperor. The Emperor had almost absolute authority. The secret of Rome’s success, where others had failed, lay in her wise provision for differing kinds of local supervision and control. Rome did not superimpose a uniform government procedure upon its conquered territories. Rome allowed many localities to govern their own affairs as long as they did not violate Roman directives. These conquered areas were generally organized into provinces. These are mentioned in the New Testament: Bithynia (Acts 16:7), Cyprus (Acts 13:4), Judea (Gal. 1:22), and Spain (Rom. 15:24). The provinces were ruled in two different ways: Proconsuls, who were responsible to the Roman Senate, ruled over provinces better known as senatorial provinces. Secondly, there were governors, better known as Procurators or prefects. Procurators were assigned directly by the Emperor and held their offices only as long as the Emperor wanted them there. The proconsuls held their positions by annual appointment by the Senate. 

Roman Emperors

Augustus (32 B.C.- A.D. 14). At the time of Jesus’ birth Augustus Caesar was the Roman Emperor. He was part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, 27 B.C.-A.D. 68. He transformed the administration of his Empire, establishing a peaceful environment and stability to the whole Roman world. He was responsible for the census roll taken before the birth of Christ. This decree forced Joseph to take Mary to Bethlehem where Jesus was born (Luke 2:1-4). 

Tiberius (A.D. 13-37). Before Augustus died in A.D. 14, he forced his stepson, Tiberius, into a marriage with his daughter, Julia. He then adopted Tiberius as his son and made it quite clear that he was to be his successor. In A.D. 13, the year before Augustus died, Tiberius was made emperor. Tiberius had a nervous breakdown and withdrew himself to the Island Capri. Tiberius died in 37. Tiberius was not directly involved in the life of Jesus, but his presence was felt (Matt. 22:17-21; Mark 12:14-17; Luke 3:1). When Jesus was confronted by the Pharisees and the Herodians about paying tribute, His reply was, “Render therefore unto Caesar (Tiberius) the things which are Caesar’s . . .” (Matt. 22:21). When Jesus was before Pilate, the Jews falsely accused Christ of not paying tribute to Tiberius (Luke 23:2). 

Caius Julius (37-41). Caius Julius is better known as Caligula. Caligula became Tiberius’ successor. He was the great-nephew of Tiberius. He proclaimed himself a god and thus encouraged the idea of Emperor worship. 

Claudius (41-54). After the death of Caligula, the Praetorian Guard stepped in as personal bodyguards to the emperor, and they forced the Senate to accept their choice of emperor. Claudius was not an obvious first choice for emperor. Handicapped as a child and left with a shaking head and a bad limp, he had always been treated with contempt by the imperial household. Much of Paul’s journeys were during the reign of Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2). Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome because of the uproar the Jews made under the leadership of Chrestus. Among those Jews were Aquilla and Priscilla. 

Nero (54-68). Nero was only 16 when he became emperor. Nero was heavily influenced by his mother and by advisors, one of whom was Sencea, a Spanish philosopher. Nero did not want to be emperor but was manipulated in doing so by his mother. Nero arranged for the murder of his mother and his brother, which contributed to his emotional instability. When a fire devastated Rome in A.D. 64, Nero built an enormous palace in the ruins of the city. He blamed the fire on the Christians and arrested and murdered many of them. Paul and Peter were both killed by Nero. Paul exercised his rights as a Roman citizen and asked to be tried by Nero (Acts 25:9-12). Paul’s appeal took him to Rome where he spent two years in Caesar’s palace (Nero’s palace, Acts 28:16-31). Nero committed suicide and the family of Augustus died with him. 

Vespasian (69-79). After a year of civil strife that saw power change hands four times, the general Vespasian installed himself as emperor and inaugurated a short-lived dynasty (Flavian) which lasted from A.D. 69-138. During this time, the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus lived and wrote his monumental work. In A.D. 70 Vespasian ordered his son Titus to destroy Jerusalem and plunder its temple. 

Domitian (81-96). The next prominent Emperor who was significant to the writing of the New Testament was Domitian. Under the rule of Domitian, the relationship between the Senate and Emperor broke down completely. Domitian was far more interested in maintaining efficient administration than in trying to mollify the senatorial aristocracy. Under his rule, Emperor worship intensified, Christians were severely persecuted, and John the apostle lived and wrote the book of Revelation.

The Herodian Dynasty

 It would be impossible to think of the political background of the New Testament without the mentioning of the Herodian clan. When Julius Caesar supplanted Pompey as Roman leader, Antipater was appointed Roman procurator of Judea and his son, Herod, became military governor of Galilee. Herod’s success in this post led the Roman Senate to appoint him king of Judea in 40 B.C. Herod was a ruthless person. He murdered anyone who dared to question or attempt to remove his authority. He killed his brother-in-law and three of his sons. He declared the decree that all male infants under two years of age should be killed. This forced Joseph to take Mary and Jesus to Egypt.

Since several Herods appear in the New Testament, it is necessary to differentiate between them. In addition to Herod the Great, others so named are Antipas, who dealt with John the Baptist, who tried Jesus, and whom Jesus nicknamed “that fox” (Luke 13:32). Herod Agrippa I, was responsible for the beheading of James the son of Zebedee, and for Peter’s imprisonment (Acts 12:1-2). Another Herodian, was Philip, better known as Herod-Philip (Mark 6:17). His reign was brief and little is known of him. Herod Agrippa II was the one Paul appealed to when he made his defense for his Christian belief. (Acts 21:17-40). With Agrippa II’s death, the Herodian dynasty ended.

Roman Procurators
After the death of Agrippa I, Judea reverted to rule by assigned Procurators. During the period A.D. 6-41, there were seven procurators of Judea: Caponius, 6-9 A.D., Marcus Ambivius, 9-12; Annius Rufus, 12-15; Veler- ius Gratus, 15-26; Pontius Pilate, 26-36 who tried Jesus; Marcellus, 36-37 and Maryllus, 38-41. In the time of Paul, the Roman Procurators were Fadus, A.D. 44-46, Alexander 46-48, Cumanus, 48-52; Felix 52-59 and Festus 59-61. Paul, after his arrest, appealed to Felix (Acts 24:2-23) and Festus (Acts 24:24-26). Under these Procurators the Jews and Christians enjoyed a considerable amount of peace. 

Conclusion 

It is amazing how God used these ungodly political figures to further his cause to redeem mankind to himself. Either directly or indirectly these political figures helped establish our faith in the New Testament. The New Testament is not only God’s will to govern our lives, but also a great historical record of the world’s kingdoms that God the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ established so he may establish his kingdom that will subdue all kingdoms.  “. . . God of heaven will set up a kingdom which will never be destroyed . . .” (Dan. 2:44).

Select Bibliography

Alexandria, Virgina. What Life Was Like When Rome Ruled the World. Time-Life Books 1992.
Balch, David and John E. Stambaugh. The New Testament In Its Social Environment. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Westminster Press. 1966.
Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction of the New Testament. New York, NY. Doubleday Publishing Co. 1997.
Bruce, F.F. Paul, Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids, Michigan. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 1999.
New Testament History. London: Nelson. 1969.
Deissmann, Adolf. Light From the Ancient East (Translated by Lionel R.M. Strachan). Peabody, Mass. 1995.
Drinkwater, J.F. and Andrew Drummond. The World of the Romans. New York, NY. Oxford University Press. 1993.
Edwards, B.D. Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Philadelphia. J.B. Lippincott & Co. 1867.
Fairweather, William. The Background of the Gospels. Minneapolis, Minnesota. Klock & Klock. 1977.
The Background of the Epistles. Minneapolis, Minnesota. Klock & Klock. 1977.
Gromacki, Robert G. New Testament Survey. Grand Rapids, Michigan. Baker Book House. 1976.
Harrison, Everett F. Introduction of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 1971.
Hester, H.I. The Heart of the New Testament. Liberty, Missouri. The Quality Press. 1963.
Josephus. Complete Works (Translated by William Whiston). Grand Rapids, Michigan. Kregel Publishing. 1978.
Koester, Helmut. Introduction to the New Testament. Vols. 1&2. New York, NY. WDEG. 1987.
Lewis, Naphtali and Ronald Meyer. Roman Civilization. NewYork, NY. Harper Torchbooks. 1966.
Levy, Thomas The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. New York. Facts on File, Inc. 1995.
Matthew, Shailer. A History of New Testament Times In Palestine 175 B.C. – 70A.D. New York, NY. The Macmillan Co. 1902.
Metzger, B.M. The New Testament: Its Background, Growth, and  Content 2d ed. Nashville, Tenn. Abingdon. 1983.
Packer, James I. The Bible Almanac. Nashville, Tenn. Thomas Nelson Publishing. 1980.
Porter, J.R. The Illustrated Guide To The Bible. New York, NY. Oxford University Press. 1995.
Stegemann, Ekkehard W. and Stegemann Wolfgang. The Jesus Movement. (Translated by O.C. Dean Jr.) Minneapolis, Minnesota. 1995.
Tenney, Merrill C. New Testament Times. Grand Rapids, Michigan. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 1965. 
Winter, Bruce W. The Book of Acts in its First Century Setting, Vols. 2 & 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 1993-1994.

8103 Leawood Ln., Woodridge, Illinois 60517

By Stan Cox

While the Son of God walked on earth, he expressed his love for all men. Jesus even loved the “unlovable.” A wonderful example of this compassion is seen in John’s record of Jesus’ conversation with the Samaritan woman at Jacob’s well in John 4.  Despite a national disdain the Jew felt toward Samaritans, Jesus started a conversation with the woman by requesting of her a drink of water. The woman recognized the singular nature of this and said, “How is it that You, being a Jew, ask a drink from me, a Samaritan woman? For Jews have no dealings with Samaritans” (v. 9).  Jesus was the Christ, and his saving work went beyond national boundaries and prejudices to include all men. “The woman said to Him, ‘I know that Messiah is coming’ (who is called Christ). ‘When He comes, He will tell us all things.’ Jesus said to her, ‘I who speak to you am He’” (vv. 25-26). The grace of God was extended even to the despised Samaritans, indeed to all men (cf. Acts 11:18).

A Despised People

To understand the animosity that existed between the Jew and the Samaritan, it is necessary to go back in history to the days of Israel’s judgment at the hands of Assyria. The event is recorded in 2 Kings 17. Israel had grieved God repeatedly with her rebellion. So, using the Assyrians as his instrument of judgment, he dealt with her. “Therefore the Lord was very angry with Israel, and removed them from His sight . . .” (v. 18). The king of Assyria took many of the Israelites into captivity, and settled the land with other peoples. “Then the king of Assyria brought people from Babylon, Cuthah (Samaritans are also known as Cuthaeans), Ava, Hamath, and from Sepharvaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria instead of the children of Israel; and they took possession of Samaria and dwelt in its cities” (v. 24). The Jews who remained, already rebellious toward Jehovah, were further corrupted in their religion. It is generally accepted that intermarriage between the peoples took place.

The Samaritans’ religion was “syncretistic” (the combination of different forms of belief or practice, Websters). Shortly after inhabiting the land they began to suffer at God’s hand. 2 Kings 17:25 reveals “they did not fear the Lord; therefore the Lord sent lions among them, which killed some of them.” Chastened by the Lord’s punishment, they determined to serve Jehovah, and brought back a priest who taught them how to fear the Lord. However, while they embraced worship of Jehovah, they retained an adoration of their own deities. “They feared the Lord, yet served their own God’s — according to the rituals of the nations from among whom they were carried away” (v. 33).

Conflicting Religions

When the remnant of Israel returned to Jerusalem to rebuild the city and temple, the Samaritans approached them with an interesting proposal. “Let us build with you, for we seek your God as you do; and we have sacrificed to Him since the days of Esarhaddon king of Assyria, who brought us here” (Ezra 4:2). Whether this request was made in good faith or not is irrelevant, it was completely unacceptable to the Jews. The Samaritans had a completely different concept of worship to Jehovah, which could not be reconciled with the Jew’s desire to restore pure worship before him. 2 Kings 17:41, “So these nations feared the Lord, yet served their carved images; also their children and their children’s children have continued doing as their fathers did, even to this day.” In response, the Jews said, “You may do nothing with us to build a house for our God; but we alone will build to the Lord God of Israel, as King Cyrus the king of Persia has commanded us” (Ezra 4:3). The Jew’s disdain of this mongrel people, coupled with their rejection of the proposal, served to entrench the animosity between them and the inhabitants of Samaria. From that point on, “. . . the people of the land tried to discourage the people of Judah. They troubled them in building” (Ezra 4:4).

Subsequent History

Understanding the history of the Samaritan people helps us both to recognize why the tension between Jew and Samaritan existed, and why Jesus responded to the woman at the well as he did. The Samaritans, having been rejected by the Jews, determined to worship Jehovah in their own way. A short quote from Unger’s Bible Dictionary serves to encapsulate the conflict between Jews and Samaritans. 

The relation between Jew and Samaritan was one of hostility. The expulsion of Manasseh by Nehemiah for an unlawful marriage, and his building of the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim by permission of Darius Nothus, took place about 409 BC. The inhospitality (Luke 9:52, 53) and hostility of the Samaritans induced many pilgrims from the north to Jerusalem to go on the east of the Jordan . . . The Jews repaid hate with hate. They cast suspicion on the Samaritan copy of the law, and disallowed the steadfast claim of the Samaritans to Jewish birth (John 4:12). Social and commercial relations, though they could not be broken off (4:8), were reduced to the lowest possible figure (959).

Our Lord’s Response to the Samaritans

“Jesus said to her, ‘Woman, believe Me, the hour is coming when you will neither on this mountain, nor in Jerusalem worship the Father. You worship what you do not know; we know what we worship, for salvation is of the Jews. But the hour is coming, and now is, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth; for the Father is seeking such to worship Him. God is Spirit, and those who worship Him must worship in spirit and truth” (John 4:21-24). In one act of sacrifice, Jesus swept aside the animosity and division which had existed between the peoples for hundreds of years. “Whoever drinks of the water that I shall give him will never thirst. But the water that I shall give him will become in him a fountain of water springing up into everlasting life” (John 4:14).

4825 Almena Rd., Ft. Worth, Texas 76114 stancox@watchmanmag.com

By Carl A. Allen

“For by grace have ye been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God; not of works, that no man should glory,” Eph. 2:8-9. The writer of the Ephesian letter attributes salvation to two things — grace and faith. The first is what God has done for man, the latter is what God requires of man.

Grace, simply defined is “favor bestowed.” It includes his love (John 3:16), his power (1 Pet. 1:5), his mercy (Rom. 11:32), Christ’s life, and his death, and also, the blood that was shed. All that is listed has to do with that which God has done for man; hence, the grace of God.

Faith, is a term used to show man’s part in salvation. Belief only is not taught in the Bible and when we read that man must have faith, it is a mistake to add the word only. The Bible teaches that man must hear the word of God (Rom. 10:17), he must believe (Rom. 10:10), he must repent (Acts 2:38), he must confess (Rom. 10:10) and he must be baptized in water, unto the remission of sins (Acts 2:38). Paul says that when one has done this, he walks in “newness of life” — he is born again, or has the remission of sins (Rom. 6:3-4). The word faith stands for man’s part and what is expected of him to obtain salvation.

“Not of works lest any man should boast” (Eph. 2:9). If this passage excludes all works, we are in trouble. Peter says one must “work righteousness” (Acts 10:34-35). Paul uses the expression “good works” (Tit. 3:8-14), and Jesus said that faith was a “work of God” (John 6:28). Now if all works are excluded, then Peter was wrong when he said we must work righteousness (Acts 10:34-35). It is true there are some works we are not to do — “works of the Law” (Gal. 2:16), “works of darkness” (Eph. 5:11), “works of the flesh” (Gal. 5:19), “works of the devil” (1 John 3:8), and “works of man” (Tit. 3:5). There is no one that can do these works and go to heaven.

We must conclude that there are works that are included and works that are excluded. The works that are simply what God has commanded us to do. When we do this, we are working righteousness (Acts 10:34-35). When a man conforms to God’s will it can then be said: “We are saved by grace through faith.”

1115 E. Houston Ave., Crockett, Texas 75835

By Daniel K. Williams

The test had come. Four godly young men, who were hundreds of miles away from their homeland, had to decide whether they would give in to the worldly culture around them or would remain faithful to the Lord. Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego made the right choice. At the risk of their lives, they refused to eat the king’s food, and instead served God in Babylon.

For the next 600 years, faithful men and women of God faced a similar choice. After Cyrus conquered Babylon, the Persians ruled Judea for over 200 years, and infused the Jewish people with near Eastern culture and language. In 330 B.C., the Greeks conquered the Persians, and the Jews became part of a Greek-speaking empire. For the next four centuries, God’s people struggled to remain holy in the midst of a Hellenistic culture. Some gave in to the temptations around them, while others kept themselves pure.

When Alexander the Great conquered the Persians in the late fourth century, Greek generals replaced the Persians as governors of Palestine. Centuries earlier, Daniel had predicted that Alexander’s successors would fight for control of his kingdom, and would involve the Jews in their struggle (Dan. 8, 11). In the twenty-two years following Alexander’s death, Greek armies passed through Palestine at least seven times.

Greek rule was not a completely negative experience for the Jews, though. After 301, the Ptolemies ruled Judea for a century, and the Jews benefitted from the new technology and economic impetus that these Greek-speaking kings of Egypt brought to Palestine. Artificial irrigation, a more efficient oil lamp, a new coinage standard, and a foot-powered potter’s wheel were only a few of the innovations that the Greeks gave the Jews. Under the Ptolemies, many Jews moved to Alexandria and other Greek-speaking cities, and they soon began to adopt Greek modes of thought. Nearly all of the Jews who moved abroad, and even many of those who remained in Palestine, learned to speak Greek. Some Greek-educated Alexandrian Jews wrote theological works that defended the Mosaic law using Platonic arguments.

A few Greeks who encountered the Jewish people were intrigued by their faith. One Ptolemaic king of the third century B.C. authorized a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. Known as the Septuagint, this translation remained the primary Bible of the Greek-speaking Jews and Christians for over five hundred years.

The peace of the early third century B.C. soon gave way to continued warfare between the Ptolemies and their rivals, the Greek Seleucids. Shortly after the Seleucids gained control of Palestine, Antiochus IV, a Seleucid monarch, attempted to hellenize the Jews by force. In 168 B.C., he converted the Jewish temple into a sanctuary of Zeus, and forced the Jews to abandon their religious rites. Many Jews were only too ready to comply. A few years before, the high priest Jason had already built a gymnasium in Jerusalem, where Jewish youths, who had tried to surgically reverse their circumcision in an effort to conform to Greek norms, competed naked in athletic events. As Daniel prophesied (Dan. 11:32), there were Jews who refused to tolerate these pagan practices. The Maccabeans led a revolt that drove the Greeks out of Jerusalem. They established their own Jewish Hasmonean dynasty, which soon became as corrupt as the pagan rulers had been. When the Romans conquered Judaea a century later, they deposed the Hasmoneans, and ruled the Jews themselves, first through the Herodian dynasty, and then through Roman governors. The Romans imposed their own military rule on Palestine, but they did not attempt to Latinize the Hellenic influence that had been present for centuries. The Jews, as well nearly everyone else in the eastern half of the Roman empire, continued to speak Greek. The Romans adopted many facets of Greek religion, art, architecture, and literature, so that the new Greco-Roman culture differed little from the Hellenistic culture that had previously pervaded the area. Faithful Jews, and subsequently Christians, continued to struggle against pagan influences as they tried to worship God in the midst of a Greek world.

There were many aspects of Hellenistic culture that all but the most ascetic Jews accepted. The Greek style of architecture dominated the Palestinian landscape. From the outside, a synagogue could be mistaken for a pagan temple, because the architectural styles were identical. Even Pharisaic Jews, who prided themselves on a strict observance of the law, read Greek literature. When Paul dealt with Gentiles, he quoted Greek poets (Acts 17:28; Tit. 1:12). Most Jews, except for some who lived in rural Palestine, spoke Greek. There were many educational, economic, and technological advantages to hellenization that were not sinful. As long as adaptation to Greek custom did not involve pagan practices, Paul said that he tried to fit into the culture around him for the sake of the gospel (1 Cor. 9:21).

Despite hellenization’s benign features, many sinful aspects of Greek culture caused problems for faithful Jews. The two greatest dangers lay in the area of religion and sexuality, as James suggested when he said that Gentile Christians needed to “abstain from the pollutions of idols and from fornication” (Acts 15:20).

The Greeks worshiped a pantheon of impotent, immoral, and competing deities. There were twelve gods and goddesses in the original pantheon, but each city honored its own patron deity above the others. Thus, Athens honored Athena as its patron goddess, while Ephesus worshiped Artemis (the Roman Diana). A number of intellectuals had already abandoned faith in these traditional gods by the first century A.D., but they continued to attend their city’s sacrifices out of a sense of civic duty. Everyone knew that temple sacrifices were not a display of faith, but a ritual obligation. People who wanted more from religion usually joined a mystery cult, where they could engage in a more fervent form of devotion that sometimes involved orgies, sexual immorality, or charismatic phenomena. Others turned to philosophy, which promised to offer atheistic, rational explanations for the questions of life. Athens was the philosophic center of the ancient world, and intellectuals throughout the Roman empire congregated in the city to enroll in one of the academies there. Both Plato and Aristotle founded schools in Athens, and other philosophers followed suit. Greek philosophers differed widely on a number of subjects, but nearly all of them continued to worship the traditional Greek gods, even though they doubted the veracity of Homeric myth. Although a few earlier Hellenistic rulers had tried to quell Judaism, the Romans of the early first century tolerated Jewish religion, because they considered it a local ancestral cult of Palestine that was analagous to the Ephesian devotion to Artemis. They could not, however, understand why a pagan who converted to Christianity would no longer be willing to worship the traditional gods, since they viewed such sacrifices as expressions of civic duty and loyalty to the authorities. The early Roman persecutions usually targeted Christians who refused to engage in public sacrifices.

Even those who truly believed in the traditional pantheon did not make worship the central aspect of their lives. Pagan religion treated devotion to the gods solely as a negotiation for beneficence, since they believed that humans could merit divine favors through service to the deities. They knew that humans could err, but they had no real concept of sin. The Greeks thought that a few sacrifices and offerings could usually make a person right with the gods. In contrast, the Lord’s people knew that humans could not offer anything to merit God’s favor; they could only be saved by accepting God’s grace (Acts 17:25; Rom. 6:23; Eph. 2:8).

The Greeks’ view of sex differed radically from God’s moral standards. Most Greek literary creations focused on illicit sexual relations, whether they were between gods or between humans. Greek and Latin authors were fascinated with sex in its many forms, including married love, adultery, premarital sex, rape, homosexuality, lesbianism, bestiality, necrophilia, pedophilia, prostitution, and narcissism. The Greeks did not practice all of these forms of sex on a regular basis, but they did write about them. The most common premarital sexual sins in the first-century Greek world were prostitution and homosexuality, while adultery and divorce were common marital problems. The Greeks expected women who did not become prostitutes to remain virgins until marriage, but they encouraged men to engage in homosexual acts, which they perhaps supplemented with visits to a heterosexual brothel, until they married, which was usually not until they were nearly thirty. Greeks considered it honorable for a male teacher to have sex with a male teenage student. After marriage, Greek males sometimes carried on homosexual relationships with young men, and there were a few who committed adultery, although this sin constituted legal grounds for divorce. Although women could sue for divorce, they had few other rights, since the Greeks thought that women were mentally and socially inferior to men. The apostles taught that Christians needed to reject the selfish view of sex that Greek males had, and to treat women and marriage as honorable in the sight of God (Rom. 1:24-27; 1 Cor. 6:9-20; Gal. 3:28; Heb. 13:4; 1 Pet. 3:7).

The Greeks also differed from Jews and Christians in their view of nudity and the body. Greek males wore no clothing when they competed in athletic games, and Greek artists usually portrayed their heroes and gods in the nude. Some male spectators expressed homosexual admiration for the naked bodies of the youths who competed in the athletic events. Sculptors rarely depicted females in the nude, but  they commonly portrayed women in tight garments that clearly revealed their voluptuousness.

Thus, Jews and Christians in the first-century Greco-Roman world faced the same challenge that Daniel and his three friends faced when they tried to live godly lives in a pagan society. There were certain customs of that society that they could adopt without violating their consciences, but they had to eschew sinful practices. The Jews used the architecture, money, literature, language, and technology of the Greeks without sinning, but the faithful had to refuse the idolatry, pagan philosophy, and sexual behavior of the Gentiles. Christians of the second and third centuries condemned all of the entertainment practices of the Greek world, including the music, theater performances, and athletic competitions of the day. They knew that in order to live godly, they had to reject the practices of the world. Most importantly, they knew that the Greeks, just as much as anyone else, needed a Savior. In Jesus Christ, both Greeks and Jews could be regenerated and become one church (1 Cor. 6:9-11; Gal. 3:26-29). At that moment, even Greeks could begin living as God’s people in the midst of a wicked world.